The Municipal Solid Waste Environmental Sciences Essay

1.0 IntroductionChapter one provides an overview of the whole survey. It begins with the background to the survey. It besides inside informations the intent of the survey, the job statement, the research inquiries and the aims. The research hypothesis, the significance of the survey and the restrictions to the survey are besides included in this chapter.1.1 Background to the StudyMore than half of the universe ‘s population live in countries that are classified as urban ( Brook and Davila, 2001 ) . Taking Africa as an illustration, its population will about treble by 2050 and this will be chiefly in the urban and peri-urban countries ( UN-Habitat 2001 ) . Rapid urbanization, which is chiefly driven by the inflow of migrators from rural countries in hunt of better supports, has its attendant effects. Increasing waste coevals rates due population growing, altering life styles of people, development and ingestion of merchandises with stuffs that are less biodegradable have led to the diverse challenges for Municipal Solid Waste Management ( MSWM ) in assorted metropoliss of the universe ( Asase et al 2009 ) Nemerow et Al ( 2009 ) define solid waste as any assortment of solid stuffs every bit good as some liquids in containers, which are discarded or rejected as being spent, useless, worthless or in extra. It must be noted that although waste might non hold any user value to the proprietor it still holds some value, peculiarly plastic and metallic waste still keep some value when discarded. This is apparent in the recycling of fictile waste and the aggregation of metallic waste by scavengers for recycling. Harmonizing to UNEP ( 2005 ) , waste coevals rates of a state normally goes up straight relative to technological promotion in development, and the inability to set in topographic point a waste direction system. Consequently, there could be enhanced urban population hazard, as a consequence of pronounced environmental crud. A important proportion of urban waste in Ghana is deposited either on the roads, waysides, unapproved shit sites, in waterways, drainage system, or in unfastened topographic points. In fact, solid waste poses assorted menaces to public wellness, and adversely affects vegetations and zoologies every bit good as the environment ; particularly when it is non suitably collected and disposed ( Geraldu, 1995 ) . Sanitation and good hygiene are cardinal to wellness, endurance, growing and development. The Millennium Development Goals ( MDGs ) have set us on a common class to force back poorness, inequality, hungriness and unwellness. Having a healthy urban environment sets a metropolis on path for development. The effects of solid waste direction is a large cost to the state in footings of wellness because when refuse ends up in the incorrect topographic point, it pollutes H2O, air and the dirt, making negative wellness impacts, and offers bacteriums and pests a friendly environment in which to multiply. Ghana, with a population of 23 million generates about 4.5 million metric dozenss of solid waste a twelvemonth ( Agyepong, 2011 ) . With an estimated population of about 2 million people, the Kumasi Metropolis generates an norm of 1,500 metric tons of solid waste daily. Out of this sum the KMA is merely able to roll up about 1,300 metric tons go forthing the staying 200 metric tons uncollected due to inadequate waste aggregation logistics ( KMA, 2010 ) . No purpose about effectivity in disposal and recycling or reuse. In recent times, a popular waste direction option that has caught the attending of the Metropolitan Authorities in the urban Centres is the use of private waste direction companies. Though the usage of private waste direction companies in covering with the challenge of effectual direction of urban waste is yet gaining popularity among developing states in sub-Saharan Africa, it provides a formidable agencies of procuring a feasible waste direction option for urban governments and carry throughing the dreams of accomplishing environmentally clean vicinities for urban inhabitants. Prominent among the private waste direction companies contracted by the Waste Management Department of the KMA to assist carry through its authorization of turn toing solid waste direction issues in the city is the Zoomlion Ghana Limited, which seems to be executing its undertaking creditably in the face of dashing challenges associated with urban solid waste direction in Ghana. From literature and experts in the field of waste direction field, a set of public presentation indexs like the waste direction activities they render ( ie street sweeping, drain cleansing, waste aggregation and disposal ) , operational capacity in footings of staffing, machinery and equipments, the fiscal viability of their activities etc. are needed to measure operations of waste direction in the Metropolis efficaciously.1.2 Problem StatementKumasi is referred to as Garden City of West Africa. The latter is an award earned from Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II on a Royal visit to Ghana in 1957, chiefly due to its vegetations and beauty. Kumasi is fast losing its glorification chiefly due to rapid urbanisation and its attender job of comparatively immense waste coevals and hapless direction of the waste. It is now rather common to see tonss of waste dotted all over the cities, Normally the ground given by the general populace for these ugly sights is that metropolis governments fail to either provide or oversee t he proviso of waste containers at vantage points. The City Authorities are further accused of neglecting to guarantee that regular and/or frequent voidance of the waste containers are done, even where these are provided. Individual end-users of the services of private waste direction companies frequently complain about undependable service bringing by these waste direction houses. On the other manus, these private waste direction houses argue that metropolis governments hamper their pursuit for quality service bringing through bureaucratism, with respects to honoring contractual understandings with the City Authorities. All this leads to ineffective waste direction. It is by and large believed that uneffective waste direction can do taint of surface H2O, groundwater, dirt, and air, which bring more jobs to worlds, other species, and ecosystems. Additionally, there is attractive force of insects and gnawers, which provides a oasis for xanthous febrility, the pestilence, GI parasites, worms, and assorted inauspicious human conditions. Several diseases, every bit good as malignant neoplastic diseases are caused by exposing worlds to wastes ensuing from the burnt gnawers and insects. Waste intervention and disposal produce important nursery gas ( GHG ) emanations, notably methane, and contributes significantly to planetary clime alteration ( International Waste Activities, 2003 ) . Besides, the Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly ( KMA ) incurs a monthly outgo of GHA?585,000.00 on the direction of solid waste in the Metropolis ( KMA, 2011 ) . Intelligibly, the significant cost involved in solid waste direction within the Metropolis arouses stakeholder involvement in cognizing the quality of service being rendered by contracted waste direction houses. This survey seeks to look into the public presentation of urban solid waste direction in the Kumasi Metropolis, find how effectively Zoomlion, a contracted private waste direction company performs its operations1.3 Aims of the StudyTo measure the public presentation of private sector engagement via Zoomlion a privately-owned waste direction company, with respect to urban solid waste direction in the Kumasi Metropolis. Specific Aims of the survey are: To measure the operational capacity of Zoomlion in footings of staffing and equipment for effectual operations. To gauge the measure of waste handled per period and its associated cost. To gauge the gross generated and the fiscal viability of Municipal solid waste direction operations of Zoomlion. To measure solid waste recycling activity in Kumasi Metropolis. To find the challenges of waste direction and perceptual experience of end-users on quality of waste direction in Kumasi.1.4 Research QuestionsThe inquiries this survey seeks to turn to are: What is the operational capacity of Zoomlion in footings of staffing and equipment for effectual operation? What are the measure of waste handled per period and its associated cost? What are the gross generated and the fiscal viability of the municipal solid direction operations of Zoomlion? What solid waste recycling activities are in the Metropolis? What are the challenges of waste direction and perceptual experience of end-users on quality of waste direction in Kumasi?1.5 Justification of the surveyEfficient urban waste direction is important in the attainment and nutriment of the position of millenary metropolis by Kumasi. Indeed, sanitation signifiers one of the major focal points of the Millennium Cities Initiatives ‘ societal sector and investment-related research in Kumasi. Knowledge of the grade of efficiency of waste direction by the Zoom king of beasts in the Kumasi Metropolis and the challenges faced in the bringing of this service would guarantee better grasp of the kineticss of urban waste direction by all stakeholders including policy shapers. It would besides supply critical information to prospective investors in the urban waste direction venture. Assorted surveies have been conducted sing urban waste direction in the Kumasi Metropolis but small or nil seems to hold been done in the country of measuring the public presentation of private urban waste direction houses, and consequences from this survey will make full the cognition spread.1.6 Scope of the StudyThe survey would be carried out within the Kumasi Metropolis in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. The survey seeks to reexamine the waste direction policy of KMA waste section and the operations of its associated contracted private waste companies in the Kumasi Metropolis. Zoomlion Ghana Limited would be used as a instance survey for the whole undertaking. The mark for the survey includes staff members of the KMA waste section, Zoomlion Ghana Limited every bit good as that of little recycling concern ( scavengers ) . The participants for the survey would be selected utilizing simple random trying whereby each participant would hold an equal opportunity of being involved in the survey. The usage of simple random sampling is to enable the research worker avoid any signifier of biaseness in the choice procedure. Interviews, questionnaires a nd observation would be used to arouse the needed information from the mark group. Performance Indexs are: frequent dislocation of vehicles and equipments, payment of service fees, logistical restraints, monitoring/ supervising by KMA, abregation/revision of contractual understanding, and consciousness of sanitation pass Torahs.1.7 Restriction of the StudyAcquisition of information on cost of operations and gross generated by Zoomlion Gh Ltd is anticipated to be hard because of the high confidentiality that persons and concerns attach to such information. Most functionaries will non voluntarily grant interviews until they have sought permission from higher authorization.1.8 Structure of the StudyThe survey is structured into five chapters. Chapter one will present the survey including the background, the job statement, aims and the undertaking range. Chapter two will supply information refering to reexamine of literature relevant to the survey subject. In this chapter, the bing orga nic structure of cognition would be reviewed to decently set up the theoretical foundation for the thesis. Chapter three will capture the research methodological analysis, detailing the research instruments and techniques that would be employed by the research worker in roll uping informations, analyzing the information and construing the consequences. Chapter four will give an overview of the consequences of informations collected in chapter three, together with analysis and treatment with regard to findings of other similar surveies. Chapter five will wrap up the whole survey by supplying information refering to the sum-up, the decision and recommendation of the survey.Chapter TWOLITERATURE REVIEW2.1 Definition of WasteMaterials that are non needfully classified as premier merchandises are regarded as waste. By and large, these stuffs are those that the generator intends to dispose of. Further, these stuffs do non happen extra use with regard to alter, ingestion, or production by the generator of the waste. The coevals of wastes may ensue from natural stuffs extraction, natural stuffs treating into in-process and concluding merchandises, the use of finished merchandises and diverse human actions. The recycling of remainders or unmoved reuse are non included ( GST, 2002 ) . The returning of substances to the environment is a end point of the happening of a natural portion of the recycle. The wastes recycled by populating beings are excreted by in-take of natural stuffs by populating beings. However, a farther flow of the residue of stuffs that would make an overload of the capacity of procedure involved in natural recycling is produced by people. Therefore, to cut down their impact on the wellness, aesthetics and the environment, there should be proper direction of the wastes ( Environmental Literacy Council, 2002 ) . Man-made systems which emphasize the economic value of stuffs and energy, and where production and ingestion are the dominant economic activities. Such systems tend to be extremely destructive of the environment as they require monolithic ingestion of natural capital and energy, return the terminal merchandise ( waste ) to the environment in a signifier that amendss the environment and necessitate more natural capital be consumed in order to feed the system. Where resources and infinite are finite ( the Earth is non acquiring any bigger ) this is finally non sustainable. The presence of waste is an indicant of overconsumption and that stuffs are non being used expeditiously ( Fullcycle, 2009 ) .2.2 Types of Waste2.2.1 Municipal Solid Waste ( MSW )The nomenclature – municipal solid waste ( MSW ) – is used for the wastes that are collected from commercial edifices, families, light industrial procedures and establishments like schools and infirmaries. The chief constituent s of MSW are yard fixingss, containers and packing stuffs, wastes from nutrients, paper and containers. In add-on, the followers may besides be contained in MSW ; industrial sludge, which may be either non-hazardous or risky from n, building, excavation, and processes involved in fabrication. There is no immediate menace to the wellness of homo or the natural environment, if MSW is managed decently. In Ghana solid waste refers chiefly to: Domestic waste ( waste from nutrient readying, brushing, discarded family points ) , Municipal waste ( waste generated in commercial Centres ) , Industrial waste ( e.g. wood waste, waste from butcheries and nutrient processing industries, metal garbages from garages ) ( Poku, 2009 ) .2.2.2 WasteExisting in a solid, liquid or gaseous signifier, a waste stuff may be flammable, reactive, caustic or toxic. Despite the fact that the term â€Å" waste † is associated with risky stuffs, the former includes merchandises used on a day-to-day footing. Waste stuffs include shoe Polish, detergents, batteries, used oil from motorised conveyance, and pigment. Additionally, the production processes of several times that we use day-to-day generate risky wastes. Legislations have been put in topographic point to enjoin commercial and industrial concerns to pull off their wastes from the point of coevals till the clip of disposal. In order to understate the risky nature of wastes, the latter is frequently made to undergo intervention with a position to modifying their biological, chemical and physical features. In modern-day times, many industrial concerns change their production processes or replace harmful stuffs with less insecure 1s in the value concatenation, so as to understate the coevals of risky wastes.2.2.3 E-WasteIn modern times, there is a new waste watercourse, which is competently termed ‘e-waste ‘ . The term e-waste is applied to electronic equipment and appliances that are utilised by industries and end-users, which have virtually come to the terminal of their utile life. The equipment and appliances in inquiry include facsimile machines, duplicators and telecasting screens. Classical illustrations of e-waste are the cathode beam tubings in telecastings and computing machine proctors, which are virtually exhausted. The fact that these equipment and appliances contain risky stuffs airss challenges during their disposal. On history of the famine of proper processs to pull off them, most of the e-waste sits lazily, alternatively of being recycled or being reused. Reselling and contribution to charities by their proprietor are some of the ways by which some of these equipment and appliances could be put to good usage.2.3 Composition of Solid WasteInformation on the composing of solid waste is of import in measuring alternate equipment demands, systems, and direction programme and programs for solid waste aggregation ( Tchobanoglous et al. , 1993 ) . For case, if wastes are generated from a commercial installation that consists of merely paper merchandises, the usage of particular treating equipment such as shredders and balers may be appropriate. Separate aggregation may besides be considered if different metropolis aggregation bureaus are involved. Harmonizing to ( Asase et al. , 2009 ) the composing of solid waste in the Kumasi metropolis is preponderantly made of biodegradable stuffs and high per centum of inert stuffs which include wood ash, sand and wood coal. Table 2.1 shows the solid waste composing in the Kumasi country. Table 2.1: Composition of Municipal Solid Waste ( MSW ) for Kumasi in 2011Waste constituentPercentage of Municipal Solid Waste constituentOrganic Material 40.19 Plastics 19.86 Glass/ bottles 1.20 Paper and composition board 7.04 Metallic elements 2.23 Fabrics 6.94 Inert ( Sand, ash, all right organics, destruction waste ) Material 20.84 Wood 1.71 Entire 100.00 Beginning: KMA WMD ( 2012 )2.4 Waste Management HierarchyThe waste direction hierarchy can be traced back to the seventiess, when the environment motion started to review the pattern of disposal-based waste direction. Rather than sing ‘rubbish ‘ as a homogeneous mass that should be buried, they argued that it was made up of different stuffs that should be treated otherwise – some should n't be produced, some should be reused, some recycled or composted, some should be burnt and others buried ( Schall 1992 ) . The waste hierarchy refers to the practical ways of pull offing waste with the chief purpose of pull outing maximal benefits from merchandises and bring forth minimal sum of waste, the ways are listed in order of importance. They are beginning decrease and reuse, recycle and composting, energy recovery and in conclusion, intervention and disposal. ( US EPA, 2012 ) Below is graphical representation of the waste direction Hierarchy, with the least preferable option, disposal marked at the underside of the trigon, and at the top is the most preferable option, that is beginning decrease and reuse. Unfortunately WMD of KMA pattern the least preferable option, which is the the disposal at the landfill site, that means our direction system in the city is non the best and it looks non sustainable excessively without the other intercessions shown on the diagram. Degree centigrades: UsersuserDesktopwaste_hierarchy_green_400pxw.png Figure 2.1: Waste Management Hierarchy Beginning: . ( US EPA, 2012 )2.4.1 Source Reduction and ReuseThis intercession or scheme agencies cut downing waste at beginning, cut downing the sum of waste you produce really prevents it from stacking up. To travel by this scheme, avoid unneeded packaging, and points designed to be used merely one time. Example, a lasting re-useable bags should be used for shopping alternatively of roll uping a batch of polyethene bags. Recycling points saves a batch of energy, natural resources, saves money for consumers and concerns. For illustration functional containers, vesture, furniture etc can be donated to charity alternatively of dumping them at the garbage dump to increase waste coevals. ( US EPA, 2012 ) .2.4.2 Recycling and CompostingRecyclingThe assemblage of used points and discarded stuffs and treating them into new merchandises is referred to as recycling. In recycling, there is minimization of the quantum that is otherwise discarded into the rubbish bins of communities. This consequences in comparatively clean environment, while bettering the quality of the ambient air ( Lave et al.,1999 ) . Some of the benefits of recycling waste are resource efficiency, extenuation in the impact on the environment from waste intervention and the disposal thereof. In consequence, this leads to a cleansing agent and a healthier environment. Extra benefits include a lessening in infinite for landfill sites, thereby, salvaging money and clip. There is besides a net economy in the quantum of resources required for bring forthing of new and advanced merchandises ( Tchobanoglous et al. , 2003 ) . During composting, which is a biological procedure, bacteriums and fungi – micro-organisms – help the transition of biodegradable substances into other stuffs which look like humus. This procedure leads to a substance with the features of a dirt, which is rich in C and N and provides a medium for seting harvests and trees. The composting procedure allows waste in kitchens to be put to good usage as foods through recycling some utile substances in waste nutrient and other stuffs. Composting combines the advantages of cleanliness, safety, bargain rate, while markedly understating the quantum of refuse intended for the rubbish bins. Compost stuff, which is an organic type of a fertiliser, may be used alternatively of chemical fertilisers chiefly for the growth of veggies. Another advantage of compost is its leaning to retain H2O, while doing the dirt comparatively easy to cultivate. More significantly, the ability of the works to retain foods is aided by compost ( Mensah a nd Larbi, 2005 ) . In general, the ambient conditions in Ghana are really suited for composting.2.4.3 Energy RecoveryThis intercession is retrieving functional energy such as heat, electricity, or fuel from waste stuffs that are to recycle and recycle, peculiarly plastics, through assortment procedures including burning, gasification, anaerobiotic digestion, landfill gas recovery and pyrolization. Example solid waste can be combusted at really high temperatures which produces heat, that heat is used to change over H2O in to steam. That steam can be used to turn turbines to bring forth electricity ( US EPA, 2012 ) .2.4.4 Treatment and DisposalThis intercession is the last of the assorted solid waste direction options mentioned above.There are many different methods of disposing of solid waste in the universe but the most common methods used in Ghana and other parts of Africa are landfill, unfastened dumping and incineration. Landfill is the most common and likely histories for more t han 90 per centum of the state ‘s municipal garbage even though landfills have been proven contaminates of imbibing H2O in certain countries. Landfills are constructed and operated to strict environmental criterions, illustration the line drives are designed in a manner to protect the land H2O.2.5 Waste Management IndexsWaste Management Indicators are variables that influence the public presentation of waste direction operations. These indexs are largely derived from literature and experts in the field of waste. From the contractual understandings ( signed between the WMD of KMA and the private waste direction ‘s companies in the Kumasi Metropolis, public presentation indexs like the waste direction activities and how they are suppose to put to death it ( ie. waste aggregation from house and communal garbage dump and disposal ) , operational capacity in footings of staffing, machinery and equipments are listed in it. Garcia-Sanchez ( 2007 ) besides used street cleansing, waste aggregation and the intervention of solid waste as indexs on the public presentation of Spanish solid waste aggregation.2.6 Theory of Waste ManagementIn industrialized states the waste direction patterns evolved with the 1970 ‘s concentrating on cut downing environmental impacts ( Tanskanen, 2000 ) . This was done by making controlled landfill sites ( Read, 2003 ) , set uping waste transportation Stationss or airting waste aggregation vehicle paths ( Truitt et al. 1969 ) . The 1980 ‘s and early 1990 ‘s focused on new technological solutions for waste direction while the mid 1990 ‘s until today, the focal point is on resource recovery ( Read, 2003 ) . In this respect recycling, incineration, composting and bioreactor intervention for energy and alimentary recovery methods are included in MSWM systems ( Chang and Wei, 1999 ; MacDonald, 1996a ) . Changes in waste direction policies in recent times have shifted waste direction planning from trust on landfill towards Integrated Solid Waste Management ( ISWM ) attacks ( Read, 2003 ) . New directives/legislations are being promulgated in the EU and the US on waste disposal in the involvement of the environment. Examples among them are ; the January 1st 2003 addition in revenue enhancement to 370 Swedish Kronor per ton of landfilled waste in Sweden ( RVF, 2003 ) ; and the 1993 United States ‘ Resource Conservation and Recovery Act ( RCRA ) Subtitle D which requires landfills to be impermeably lined and equipped with leachate and gas aggregation equipment ( Pacey, 1999 ) . These policies and their enforcement have helped the developed states in implementing the waste hierarchy ; bar, stuffs recovery, incineration and landfill. For case the 1993 Government Action Plan on Waste and Recycling in Denmark set out to accomplish marks of 54 % recycling, 25 % incineration and 21 % la ndfill by the twelvemonth 2000 ( Sakai et al. , 1996 ) . In the development universe nevertheless, hapless enforcement or non-existence of waste direction policies have resulted in the dependance on unfastened dumping. Improvements in the country of building healthful landfills in these parts have most frequently been supported by the World Bank and other bilateral giver bureaus ( Johannessen and Boyer, 1999 ) .2.6.1 Waste CollectionThe term waste aggregation includes non merely the aggregation of solid waste from assorted beginnings but besides the trucking of these wastes to the location where the contents of the aggregation vehicles are emptied ( Tchobanoglous et al. , 1993 ) . Waste aggregation is besides described as a constituent of waste direction which consequences in the transition of waste stuffs from the beginning of production to either the point of intervention or concluding disposal site ( Sampson, 2003 ) . The manner and mode in which waste is collected in footings of vehicle types, capacities, staffing degrees and unit of ammunition constellation depends on the nature of the aggregation. For illustration family / commercial, and the contractual agreements put in topographic point ( working hours, disposal points, stuffs collected and receptacles used, e.g. black bag, wheelie-bin, orangish poke ) . Harmonizing to Tchobanoglous et Al. ( 1993 ) , waste aggregation starts with the containers keeping stuffs that a generator has designated as no longer utile and ends with the transit of the solid waste to a location for processing or disposal. In high income countries, the private waste aggregation companies collect the waste straight from families with compactor trucks for dumping pieces in low and in-between income countries, occupants carry their waste to public waste containers provided by the Waste Management Department at communal aggregation points ( Boadi and Kuitunen, 2003 ) .2.6.2 Waste Collection Service/MethodsSolid waste aggregation systems and methods in Kumasi are unequal to cover a big portion of the metropolis, peculiarly, in hapless homesteader colonies, and unaccessible vicinity to roll up all the expected waste to be generated in the metropoliss ( Boadi and Kuitunen, 2003 ) . The chief types of waste aggregation methods are roll uping co-mingle or non-separated w aste at beginning and waste at beginning separated. Waste aggregation methods vary widely between different states and parts. Domestic waste aggregation services are frequently provided by local authorities governments, or by private industry. Developing states do non hold a formal waste-collection system even though these states are now following some of the popular waste aggregation systems around the universe. For case in Australia, the curbside aggregation is the method of disposal of waste where every urban domestic family is provided with three bins: one for recyclables, another for general waste and another for garden stuffs. These bins are provided by the municipality if requested. In Ghana the Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies are responsible for the aggregation and concluding disposal of solid waste through their Waste Management Departments ( WMDs ) and their Environmental Health and Sanitation Departments ( www.ghanadistrics.com, 2009 ) . There are two chief types of waste aggregation services that are delivered by the private operators in the Kumasi Metropolis. These are house-to-house and communal aggregation services. Peter et al. , ( 2009 ) asserted that the backing of the house-to-house aggregation services in the Kumasi Metropolis increased from 2.1 per cent of the population in 1999 to 20.8 per cent in 2005. It was besides observed that occupants of the metropolis are willing to sponsor the service if satisfactory degrees of service could be guaranteed.2.6.3 Household and Commercial Waste CollectionFamily wastes are by and large generated from places. They are gathered in waste bins, plastic or metal containers, plastic bags for aggregation by waste aggregator utilizing a waste aggregation vehicle. The waste generated from families are carried to cardinal waste aggregation point ( reassign Stationss ) where they would be loaded into a vehicle and either sent to a landfill site or to an alternate waste intervent ion installation. The sum of waste generated from families and commercial topographic points far exceeds the volume collected. Harmonizing to Boadi and Kuitunen ( 2003 ) , 60 % of the entire waste generated in Accra is collected yearly go forthing the 40 % ungathered. Harmonizing to the Kumasi Waste Management Department ( 2009 ) , and the private waste direction companies in Kumasi, their inability to roll up all the waste generated from the families and the commercial countries are as a consequence of hapless route web within the metropolis, unequal waste aggregation containers and the frequent interruption down of bulldozers and compactors at the landfill site. Harmonizing to Boadi and Kuitunen, ( 2003 ) , households resort to alternate ways of disposing their waste. For case in high income countries waste bins are non emptied in clip coercing abode to engage persons to dispose of the waste at the cardinal aggregation points. In low income countries, the containers are non remove d in clip and this causes people to dump waste in unauthorised mopess such as canals, H2O organic structures, and surface drains.2.6.4 Logisticss of Solid Waste CollectionPast methods of planning for and runing waste aggregation systems are under force per unit area, ensuing from the demand to better the aggregation systems to protect the environment and public safety. Sampson ( 2003 ) stated in his study that waste aggregation and conveyance has important environmental, wellness and safety deductions every bit good as the economic cost due to the types of logistics that are used to roll up and transport the waste. The entire measure of waste coevals keeps increasing coupled with the nature and type of waste produced in our technological society gives the complexness of the type of logistics requires for the aggregation of waste. There are a figure of barriers that limit attempts to better the efficiency of waste aggregation logistics ( Sampson, 2003 ) . These are: The inconsistent nature of waste production, with fluctuations happening on a hebdomadal and seasonal footing and from street-to-street and region-to-region, Access limitations, intending that non all belongingss can be serviced by the same vehicles, Ineffective matching of vehicles to unit of ammunitions, and Variations in stuff bringing points over clip, a state of affairs that will originate more often as stuff reprocessing and bringing to new markets increases. To better the efficiency of waste aggregation logistics the followers may be considered: Raising the issue of logistics earlier in the planning stages of incorporate waste direction systems, Phased debut of new aggregation strategies such that conveyance jobs can be addressed and costs more to the full understood prior to full strategy acceptance, Partnership working, e.g. through shared terminals, Improved apprehension of the capablenesss of the asset-base, Collection and usage of operational public presentation informations to inform future planning, Effective periodic work programming and routing, and Eventuality planning, e.g. for unplanned closing of waste disposal installations.2.6.5 Methods of Waste DisposalThere are many different methods of disposing of solid waste in the universe but the most common methods used in Ghana and other parts of Africa are landfill, unfastened dumping and incineration. Landfill is the most common and likely histories for more than 90 per centum of the state ‘s municipal garbage even though landfills have been proven contaminates of imbibing H2O in certain countries. The most common methods of disposing solid waste are described below:LandfillDisposing of waste in landfill involves burying the waste in cavities and this is the most common pattern in most states. It is the most cost effectual method of disposal, with aggregation and transit accounting for 75 per centum of the entire cost ( Bassis, 2009 ) . In a modern landfill, garbage is dispersed thin, compacted in beds and covered by a bed of clean Earth. Pollution of surface H2O and groun dwater is minimised by run alonging and contouring the fill, packing and seting the topmost screen bed, deviating drainage, and choosing proper sites non capable to deluging or high groundwater degrees. The best dirt for a landfill is clay because clay is less permeable than other types of dirt ( Mensa and Larbi, 2005 ) . Materials disposed off in a landfill can be farther secured from escapes by solidifying them in stuffs such as cement, fly ash from power workss, asphalt, or organic polymers. A properly-designed and well-managed landfill can be a hygienic and comparatively cheap method of disposing of waste stuffs. Older, poorly-designed or poorly-managed landfills can make a figure of inauspicious environmental impacts such as wind-blown litter and coevals of liquid leachate. Another common byproduct of landfills is gas ( largely composed of methane and C dioxide ) , which is produced as a consequence of anaerobiotic break down of organic waste. This gas can make odour jobs, kill surface flora, and is a nursery gasOpen dumpingOpen mopess was a popular method of waste disposal in the early parts of the twentieth century. This involved disposing the waste in unfastened mopess without any screen or protection. Dumpss were normally located in countries where there was land in copiousness. A common site for unfastened mopess is abandoned mines, preies, swamps and hillsides. The waste is normally piled up every bit long as the equipments being used can pull off to travel in an d out of the garbage dump. Open mopess are popular in developing states as a agency of waste disposal ( Tchobanoglous et al. , 1993 ) . It is practised in the families on a smaller graduated table and sporadically burned to cut down the volume of waste and in some cases it is levelled and compacted. This is a common pattern in Ghana.IncinerationIncineration is another method of solid waste disposal. Incineration is a method of firing waste that is combustible at high temperatures in the scope of 1000 grades Celsius in other to cut down the waste to ashes. Incineration is more expensive but a safer method of disposal than landfills ( Bassis, 2009 ) . Modern incinerators are designed to destruct at least 99.9 % of the organic waste stuff they handle. Garbage burned in incinerators can poison air, dirt, and H2O. Incineration converts waste stuffs in to heat, gas, steam and ash. Communities near incinerators have objected to them because of frights about possible emanations of gaseous p ollutants ( Bach et al. , 2009 ) . The national policy in Ghana endorses the seting in topographic point of miniaturized workss for incinerating risky and wellness attention wastes. Relatively little incinerating workss have been built as portion of the wellness proviso substructure in most of the towns holding wellness installations in the state. The incinerators, which are really simplistic in building, are made up of cement, clay bricks and metal. These incinerators are normally fired by woodfuel and are easy operated and maintained by the wellness staff of the District Assemblies. It worthy of note these local incinerators do non hold the needed environmental controls ( Mensah and Larbi, 2005 ) .Recycling methodsRecycling is change overing used and cast-off stuffs into new merchandises. This is a signifier O f decrease of waste disposed, ensuing in cleansing agent environment and besides giving in fresher air to take a breath ( Lave et al. , 1999 ) . Waste recycling has some important advantages such as minimum us age of natural stuffs, cut downing imparts on environment, originating from waste intervention and disposal and makes the milieus cleansing agent and healthier. Additionally saves on landfill infinite, money, and cut downing the measure of energy needed to fabricate new merchandises ( Tchobanoglous et al.. , 1993 ) . A big figure of the waste generated in our houses can be recycled and reused. Organic kitchen waste such as remnant grocery, vegetable Peels, and spoilt or dried fruits and veggies can be recycled by seting them in the compost cavities that have been dug in the garden. Old newspapers, magazines and bottles can be sold to the adult male who buys these points from places ( United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2007 ) .CompostingComposting is a biological procedure in which micro-organisms, chiefly fungi and bacteriums, convert degradable organic waste into humus-like substance. This finished merchandise, which looks like dirt, is high in C and N and is an first-class medium for turning workss. The procedure of composting ensures that the waste produced in the kitchens is non heedlessly thrown and left to decompose. It recycles the foods and returns them to the dirt as foods. Apart from being clean, inexpensive, and safe, composting can significantly cut down the sum of disposa ble refuse. The organic fertiliser can be used alternatively of chemical fertilisers and is better when used for veggies. It increases the dirt ‘s ability to keep H2O and makes the dirt easier to cultivate. It helps the dirt to retain more of the works foods ( Mensah and Larbi, 2005 ) . Generally, conditions in Ghana are really contributing for composting in footings of the waste composing and conditions conditions. However, composting has ne'er flourished as an option for garbage intervention and disposal. Most local governments feel, based on local experience, that the running costs of composting workss are inordinate and indefensible ( Mensah and Larbi, 2005 ) . The lone known big composting works in Ghana was built with external giver support and commissioned in the early 1980s. During its early old ages of operation the works was utile in assisting cut down the volume of waste. However, high care costs adversely affected its sustainability. In the last few old ages most o f the mechanical constituents have been decommissioned and the works presently operates merely for presentation intents.2.7 Waste Costing2.7.1 Environmental CostssAdditionally, there is attractive force of insects and gnawers, which provides a oasis for xanthous febrility, the pestilence, GI parasites, worms, and assorted inauspicious human conditions. Several diseases, every bit good as malignant neoplastic diseases are caused by exposing worlds to wastes ensuing from the burnt gnawers and insects. Waste can pollute surface H2O, groundwater, dirt, and air, which causes more jobs for worlds, other species, and ecosystems. ( Diaz et al. , 2006 ) Waste intervention and disposal produces important green house gas ( GHG ) emanations, notably methane, and contributes significantly to planetary clime alteration ( International Waste Activities, 2003 ) .2.7.2 Social CostssWaste direction is a important environmental justness issue. Many of the environmental loads cited above are more frequently borne by marginalized groups, such as racial minorities, adult females, and occupants of developing states. NIMBY ( not-in-my-back-yard ) is a popular term used to depict the resistance of occupants to a proposal for a new development near to them ( Wolsink, 1994 ) . However, the demand for enlargement and siting of waste intervention and disposal installations is increasing worldwide. There is now a turning market in the transboundary motion of waste, and although most waste that flows between states goes between developed states, a important sum of waste is moved from developed to developing states ( Ray, 2008 ) .2.7.3 Economic CostssThe costs of pull offing waste are comparatively high, and the cost is frequently beared by authoritiess ( Muck and Brass, 2009 ) . Cost of operation can be reduced by expeditiously designed aggregation paths, modifying vehicles, and with public instruction. Environmental policies such as wage as you dump can cut down the cost of direction and cut down waste measures. Waste recovery ( that is, recycling, reuse ) can be cut down economic costs because it avoids pull outing natural stuffs and frequently cuts transit costs ( Carlsson Reich, 2005 ) . The location of waste intervention and disposal installations frequently has an impact on belongings values due to dust, noise, pollution, unsightliness, and negative stigma. The unrecognized sector consists usually the choosers of waste who scavenge for plastics, glass, metals, fabrics etc for sale . These scavengers can significantly alter or cut down waste collected, but there are alot of challenges that comes into drama, illustration maltreatment of workers and development, poorness, disease, ( Wilson et al. , 2006 ) .2.8 Overview of Solid Waste Management in GhanaThe 2000 Housing and Population Census reports that on the national degree, 4.8 % of families have their solid waste collected straight from their home, 7.9 % burn their family garbage, 57.6 % usage assorted family receptacles for storage and direct it to designated public mopess including communal-container Stationss or healthful sites. It is reported that 25.9 % of families dump their garbage at unspecified locations including vacant tonss, drains, embankment of H2O classs, rivers, lakes and wetlands. Chiefly, there are two solid waste aggregation systems in Ghana – door to door aggregation system which takes topographic point in the low denseness countries of the urban Centres, and communal aggregation system in the high denseness countries. There is some sum of pre-collection in countries of hapless handiness based on the usage of Manual and Motorized Tricycles introduced by Zoomlion. Waste disposal in Ghana is chiefly by landfilling and presently the state can tout of merely two Sanitary Landfill installations located in Kumasi and Tamale. Two others are under building in Sekondi-Takoradi and Tema. The other metropoliss and towns depend on garbage dumps for their waste disposal. Other systems such as incineration, waste to energy, anaerobiotic digestion, etc have so far remained at explorative phases, with the exclusion of composting which is at the execution phase at Zoomlion ( Agyepong, 2011 ) . Engineered landfills are constructed to run into specific environmental cr iterions including low permeableness clay line drive and natural flow ( gravitation based ) leachate direction ( Boyer and Johannessen, 2010 ) . The first Waste Management Department ( WMD ) , Accra Metropolitan Authority ‘s – Weapon of mass destruction, was inaugurated in 1985 with the transition of the so Mechanical Engineers Department which was entirely responsible for pull offing the workshop for vehicle/equipment fix and care to include solid waste aggregation and disposal services. The Kumasi Metropolitan Authority ‘s Waste Management Department ( KMA-WMD ) followed in 1992 with the aid of the UNDP-Kumasi Sanitation Project. The Overseas Development Association, ODA ( now DFID ) of the UK besides provided vehicles, machinery and equipment under the Kumasi Solid Waste Disposal undertaking ( 1992 – 1995 ) ( Salifu, 2011 ) .2.9.1 National Environmental Sanitation PolicyThe Environmental Sanitation Policy is aimed at developing and keeping a clean, safe and pleasant physical environment in all human colonies, to advance the societal, economic and physical wellbeing of all subdivisions of the popul ation. It comprises a figure of complementary activities, including the building and care of healthful substructure, the proviso of services, public instruction, community and single action, ordinance and statute law ( MLGRD, 1999 ) . The Policy besides outlines the functions and duties of the Community and Individuals. Guaranting good environmental sanitation is the duty of all citizens, communities, private sector, endeavors, NGOs and authorities establishments. All these histrions have an indispensable portion to play in keeping a high criterion of environmental sanitation. The policy indicates that, every person, constitution or establishment shall be responsible for: Cleansing within and in the immediate environments of the belongings they occupy, including entree ways and the drains and roads bordering the belongings ; Impermanent storage of wastes within the belongings and disposal thereof outside the belongings, as may be directed by the competent authorization ; Taking steps to forestall the genteelness of disease vectors within and in the immediate environments of the belongings they occupy ; Guaranting that the wider environment is non polluted or otherwise adversely affected by their activities ; Hygienically disposing of all wastes they generate in public countries by usage of an authorized public lavatory or solid waste container as appropriate ; Participating in all communal environmental sanitation exercisings organised by the community or its representatives ( MLGRD, 1999 ) . The policy besides entrusts in the Assemblies the power to proclaim bye-laws and ordinances to assist in their environmental sanitation direction procedure. To complement these attempts, the Judiciary is expected to set up and authorise Community Tribunals to prosecute wrongdoers against environmental sanitation bye-laws and ordinances ( MLGRD, 1999 ) . This is a clear chance for KMA to ordain rigorous environmental sanitation bye-laws to do the metropolis dwellers responsible for environmental sanitation in Kumasi to guarantee good environmental sanitation patterns.2.8.2 Environmental Sanitation Bye-Laws in the Kumasi Metropolitan AreaSound environmental jurisprudence and administration are indispensable for protecting the natural environment and the life and supports that depend on it. Governance here refers to the Assembly ‘s usage of a scope of legal tools to necessitate or advance coveted behavior. These tools could be traditional ordinances, environmental appraisals, info rmation revelation demands, market mechanisms, economic inducements, or public policies to advance voluntary action on a graduated table that will heighten urban environmental sanitation and environmental protection. The sum-up of the Bye-laws includes the followers: Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly ( House Owners and Occupier ) Bye-Laws, 1995. – This bye-law defines the duties of house proprietors, belongings proprietors, renters or other residents in maintaining their immediate environment clean. It besides prescribes the penalty that should be meted out with wrongdoers of the bye-laws. Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly ( Sanitation ) Bye-Laws, 1995. – This bye-law besides covers general sanitation or hygiene. It describes what constitutes a sanitation offense and what should non be done by both belongings proprietors and walkers to do pollution in the metropolis. Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly ( Cleansing ) Bye-Laws, 1995 – The cleansing bye-law regulates activities that promote ocular pollution and nuisances and prescribes punishments for such offenses.2.9 Challenges of Waste Management – Private-Sector Engagement as RedressBefore 1995 solid waste direction in Ghana was run strictly as a authorities monopoly ( Post et al. , 2003 ) . However the authorities was neglecting to adequately turn to the healthful demands of its citizens and failures in public service opened the sphere to assorted manners of public-private cooperation ( Thompson, 2010 ) . The formal battle of private sector in everyday services, commenced earnestly with the denationalization of cesspool emptying services in Kumasi. It was a logical next-step to formalise private-sector engagement in solid waste direction every bit good. And so in transporting out the Urban Environment Review, in 1994, with support from the World Bank, the issue of turn toing institutional functions was given much importance. The urban reappraisal which led to the readying of the first-phase of the Urban Environmental Sanitation Project ( UESPI ) which is in its 2nd stage ( UESPII ) influenced the navigation of franchise zones for solid waste services in Accra, Sekondi-Takoradi, Kumasi and Tamale. The purpose was for an incremental enlargement of zones to finally cover the whole of each metropolis – which is mostly the agreement we see today ( Salifu, 2011 ) . In a presentation made at a UN conference on edifice partnerships for traveling towards zero waste, Agyepong ( 2011 ) outlined some issues identified by private operator ( s ) as barriers to private-sector-participation or public-private-partnerships which included ; proliferation of statute law that entrenches public-monopoly of bringing of services, incorrect attitudes of the general populace to solid waste disposal, sustainable funding, hapless planning and rapid urbanisation, weak human resource capacity and research support base, and political relations. Harmonizing to Salifu ( 2011 ) as portion of the solid waste direction betterment services of the five largest metropoliss in Ghana UESP1 implemented an luxuriant strategy for private sector engagement. Subsequent acceptance of franchise direction for the aggregation of solid waste meant to get down on pilot footing was replaced with the debut of the City and Country Waste Limited city-wide catching enterprise in Accra by AMA. The constrictions of the both the franchise system and contract manner of service bringing has included: The Torahs declaring such franchise or contract zones were simply announced without the corresponding gazeted bye-laws backup these declarations ; The capacity of private operators to roll up the fees ( under franchise ) ; Where pockets of communal-storage containers at public topographic points like markets and lorry Parkss are within the franchise zones, costs of these were still to be borne by MMDAs through their IGFs, with high default rates of payment of contractors – in some cases up to 6 months ; Poor aggregation modus operandis by private operators that eroded assurance of occupants ; Start-up pilot zones gave the feeling of an experiment, peculiarly when aggregation by the metropolis ‘s ain side-loading truck ( in the instance of Kumasi ) was still traveling on in countries where fee-collection was left to drivers and secret agents ;Other establishments like the Army, Prisons, Police, Civil Aviation and others operated parallel aggregation strategies for their barracks and from cottages of senior forces.

Young Goodman Brown: Nathaniel Hawthorne

â€Å"Young Goodman Brown,† was written in year of 1835 by Nathaniel Hawthorne, who is identified for being one of literature's most fascinating interpreters of seventeenth-century Puritan culture. A literary device is a method that creates a definite influence in writing. Literary devices are found all throughout Young Goodman Brown, such as theme, motif, and symbol. There are many different themes shown throughout the story of Young Goodman Brown. From the moment he enters the enigmatic forest, Young Goodman Brown expresses his fear of being there, and to him it is a place where nothing upright is probable.Young Goodman Brown, similar to other Puritans, relates the forest with wild Indians and thinks he sees them hiding behind the trees. Young Goodman Brown has strong faith that evil could definitely exist in the woods. â€Å"Evil is the nature of mankind. Evil must be your only happiness† (Hurley 1). Young Goodman Brown ultimately sees evil in himself, just as he had predicted. He believes of it as a matter of corruption that is not the tradition of his family and friends. They would certainly not have strolled in the forest by choice, and Young Goodman Brown is distraught when evil insists otherwise.He is humiliated to be seen walking in the woods and hides when the minister and Deacon pass by. The woods are considered evil, scary, and gloomy, and Young Goodman Brown is at ease in the woods when he has given in to the devil. One of the motifs in the story of Young Goodman Brown is female purity. When Young Goodman Brown leaves Faith at the opening of the story, he promises that after this evening of devilish activities, he will grasp onto her skirts and soar to paradise.From the time and setting of this story, the idea was that a man’s wife or mother will convert him and prepare the work of true spiritual faith for the entire family was a popular one. Young Goodman Brown adheres to the impression of Faith’s purity during the cour se of his trials in the woods, blasphemy that as long as Faith rests holy, he can find it in himself to fight the devil. When Young Goodman Brown discovers that Faith is present at the service, it alters every one of his thoughts about what is moral or immoral in the universe, losing his power and capability to fight (Baym 1).Female purity was an influential idea in Puritan New England, and men trusted on women’s faith to sustain on their own. When Faith’s purity is demolished in the eyes of Goodman Brown, he fails to fight evil and use his faith. One of the main symbols in this story is the pink ribbons that Faith places in her cap that signifies her purity. The color pink is linked with virtue, and ribbons are known as a modest and innocent embellishment. Hawthorne references Faith’s pink ribbons numerous times at the opening of the story, instilling her personality with youth and cheerfulness (Xian-Chun 2).He reestablishes the ribbons when Young Goodman Brown is in the woods, contemplating with his uncertainties about the morals of people he is acquainted with. When the pink ribbon flies downward from the clouds, Young Goodman Brown distinguishes it as a symbol that Faith has absolutely dropped into the territory of evil; she has no mark of her purity or innocence (Xian-Chun 1). The color white also represents the idea of goodness and purity, while red represents twistedness and tainted ideas.In the conclusion of the story, Faith meets Young Goodman Brown as he proceeds from the woods; she is wearing her pink ribbons yet again, signifying her return to the image of innocence she displayed at the opening of the story and casting away the uncertainties on the truth of Young Goodman Brown’s ventures (Xian-Chun 1). Williamson begins by stating, â€Å"Hawthorne's definition of a good author, he advises that Hawthorne deemed the best writers as those with a little devil in them† (Williamson 1).Williamson proposes that in â€Å" Young Goodman Brown† there is a joining among the novelist and the evil spirit and the novelist/narrator is truly a follower of the evil spirit festivity (Williamson 1). He also composes that Brown really meets with the three evil spirits: the old man, Goody Cloyse, and the narrator. The narrator is the evil spirit in the story that he has the capability to make Brown and the person who reads identify evil abilities of the other characters (Williamson 1). Walter Shear shares that as Young Goodman Brown leaves Faith, he becomes an individual psychologically.His retreat from his wife is not merely a representative loss of faith, but it is also his leaving behind conservative faith. In the woods, Brown's belief is lacking; therefore the familiar woods are frightening (Shear 1). He must struggle with the individuals in the woods in demand to keep his ethics and beliefs. It is him contrary to humanity and he is deceived by that very civilization. At the end, Young Goodman Brown dep arts the fantasy and proceeds to usual culture (Shear 1). He is more conscious of himself and of his connection with other participants of the culture. Shear states that Brown exemplifies the unbalanced Puritanism s it declines in its spiritual belief and becomes slightly deceitful. Brown's disgust of his wife and community signifies his own necessity to psychologically limit his motives for leading in the forest (Shear 1). Young Goodman Brown is entirely devastated and overwhelmed when he wakes from his nightmare. As he walked the streets of Salem he was not capable to isolate his vision from actuality. He is incapable to handle the findings that the possible for wicked exist in everyone. The rest of his lifetime is demolished because of his helplessness to express this reality and be aware of it.The vision, has established the seed of uncertainty in Young Goodman Brown's mind, which subsequently takes him off from his related gentleman and leaves him unaccompanied and unhappy. The reality is that Young Goodman Brown loathes these individuals because he understands that identical traits in himself. Like the individuals in his vision, he questions his personal belief. However, he plants his personal worries onto those nearby him. The vision is a demonstration of all of the anxieties he has about himself and the selections he has made throughout his lifetime.He is too full of pride to recognize his personal mistakes. His time finishes unaccompanied and depressed because he was not once capable to gaze at himself and understand that what he understood were everyone else's mistakes were his as well. He is entirely secluded from his culture. The literary devices deployed by Hawthorne throughout â€Å"Young Goodman Brown,† give the piece an effectiveness and life that it would not have otherwise. The devices of theme, motif, and symbolism are heavily used and extremely effective throughout the entire piece, making it understandable, relatable, and enjoyable for the reader.

Is the Ecological Crisis the Human Rights Concern of the Century Essay

The ecological crisis has now become an important topic throughout the years. Even so, toward the end of the last century, the issues of such crises became a focal talking point of governments, international organisations and scholars. This most likely is, as Leigh (2005) discusses, an increasing acceptance that such ecological disasters affecting mankind has been one of â€Å"the most critical turning points† that the world has ever encountered. Such crises are experienced when our environment is modified in ways which undermine our continued existence. As the environment and its ecosystems are in a constant state of being damaged, its quality is vastly ruined and this has major effects on the lives that are dependent on it. Magdoff and Foster (2011) suggest that for the ecological crisis to be understood, it must be looked at in the sense of the boundaries of the planet. They go on to indicate that ultimately the Earth has several thresholds which it must remain in in order to preserve the gentle conditions that the Earth has experienced in the past century. These thresholds include loss of biodiversity, climate change, a depleting ozone layer, world-wide freshwater and chemical pollution. Unfortunately, the planet has already passed two of these, including loss of biodiversity and climate change due to our damaging activities that cause environmental disparities. Until recently, the ecological crisis and its subsequent effects have been discussed mainly in the scientific disciplines as merely an environmental issue. It has also been made into an economic concern. However, it is now more than ever in the 21st century being debated and referred to as a subject for human rights. This essay seeks to examine the issue of the impact of the ecological crisis, its human rights implications, and how it has come to be considered the human rights concern of the century. The Ecological Crisis The end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st has seen a remarkable increase in the number of environmental catastrophes that the Earth has experienced. These disasters have not been just limited to one eographic region but they have affected nearly every single part of the planet. Some have included climate change, which in turn has been affected by the greenhouse effect and gases ; the advent of peak oil; loss of biodiversity and therefore diminished quantities and quality of food supplies; plus deforestation, chemical pollution and oil spills. These in turn have had a knock-on effect on the way of living for man and caused such issues as rising sea levels, floods, reduced food resources, droughts, and polluted air and water supply. As mentioned, the Earth’s threshold for climate change and biodiversity loss has been passed and this has already been causing irreparable harm to the planet’s ecosystems and the environment. It is still possible, however, to stop such effects from permanent harm to the environment, which is why the ecological crisis has become such an important matter for discussion today. Climate Change â€Å"Of all the environmental issues that have emerged in the past decades, global climate change has been the most serious and most difficult to manage† (Dessler and Parson, 2006). Like with the above quote, it is thought by many scientists and scholars that climate change is and will be the biggest threat to the environment mainly because of its potential to bring about such brutal destruction. Oxfam International (2008) stated that some of the 23 richest countries in the world (comprising Canada, Australia and USA) where just fourteen percent of the entire world population inhabits, produced almost sixty percent of the planet’s carbon emissions since the 1800s. The Earth’s climate is changing. In fact, it has always been varying from time to time. However, the degree of change is now the big worry. The Great Warming (2006) defines climate change as an alteration in the â€Å"long-term climate† of a particular area. It is further stated that humans contribute to this climate change by discharging greenhouse gases and sprays up into the atmosphere while also modifying the land we live on. Dessler and Parson (2006) debate the forecasts for climate change in the 21st century are more or less unclear, nonetheless, this uncertainty can work either way in that the climate may increase or decrease. The prospect of such unknowns makes this question a lot graver. Many of the activities that individuals carry out on a daily basis has contributed significantly to the greenhouse effect, the depletion of the ozone layer, and therefore climate change. As The Great Warming (2006) put it, the inhabitants of the Earth are constantly burning fossil fuels for heating of houses, for production of electricity and to run machines and vehicles. All of these activities have been adding to the warming effect on the atmosphere. The UNDP (2007) report on fighting climate change established that since the start of the industrial age, the temperature of the Earth has risen by about 0. 7 degrees Celsius and this increase seems to be speeding up with time. The report went further in determining that if a threshold of 2oC is broken, we hazard the idea of greater irreparable damage to the environment. Magdoff and Foster (2011) quotes the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) stating that by the end of the century in 2100, the most probable temperature increase worldwide will be in the 2. to 4. 6oC range. This, we can see, is far higher than the previously mentioned threshold of 2oC, and as the authors mention, is a major cause for concern and panic. Such drastic climate change can ultimately lead to ice caps melting, sea levels rising, droughts, forced migration of peoples, a reduction in food produce, and danger to coastal regions. This can lead to reduced health and welfare of the population while also causing serious issues with atmospheric pollution. Other forms of the Ecological Crisis Climate change has not been the only crisis the environment has faced. There has also been widespread degradation with other human-driven activities. Goodhart (2009) explains that the ecosystem has been affected by severe exhaustion of its resources. This includes deforestation which has led to erosion and land slippage and thus pushed people out of their habitat. Oils spills have been a major source of concern, according to Goodhart, which has threatened the survival of certain oceanic species that are a vital source of food for man. The ecological crisis will affect the entire world population if nothing is done to stop the effects of all these contributory factors. This has led international organisations such as the United Nations (UN) to establish various agencies and protocols that will guide international actors in dealing with the crisis. These include the IPCC, as well as the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997. The UN has also held several conferences over the years to tackle the problems including the Earth Summit in Brazil and the United Nations Framework Conference on Climate Change (UNFCCC) . As will be seen in the next section, some of these mechanisms have begun placing more emphasis on and framing the environmental issues as human rights concerns. Relationship between the Ecological Crisis and Human Rights â€Å"As the world marks the 60th anniversary of the UDHR, High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay points out that a wide range of universally recognized rights including food, life, water and adequate housing are under a direct threat as a result of climate change† (OHCHR, 2008a). The destruction of the environment and its consequent effects on humans is leading to grave human rights concerns. In its resolution on climate change, the UN Human Rights Council stated their concern for climate change posing a direct danger to communities in the world, further suggesting that this ecological crisis has consequences for the â€Å"full enjoyment of human rights† (HRC, 2008) . Framing of the issues in human rights terms has been a very useful tool for creating greater awareness of its impacts and ensuring that the subject reaches new actors and activists, ultimately influencing the process for the better. Human rights are now frequently referred to as â€Å"universal and indivisible†. For this reason, Hawkins (2010) suggests that every human being is â€Å"entitled to every basic right by virtue of their humanity†. As climate change is possibly the biggest ecological concern of late, many scholars refer to it the most when focusing on the human rights implications. However, there are still very deep human rights concerns for the other contributors to the crisis. Depledge (2007) mentioned that there are, at present, no organisations such as the UN that blatantly suggests a right to a healthy environment. Nevertheless, he proposes that the human right to health covered under the UDHR directly implies a link to the environment. This is because the way in which the environment is kept can and does affect the security of people. Therefore, we see truth in Commissioner Navi Pillay’s words in mentioning these rights. Hunter (2009,p. 7) also suggests that climate change can have an impact on the right to self-determination. One example of the effect of the crisis on this right is that of the Inuit people of Alaska who in 2005 submitted a petition to the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights suggesting that their â€Å"way of life† was being hindered by climate change which in turn influences their continued existence and culture. Climate change, if continued on its current path will increasingly raise the Earth’s temperature. This will further affect the water sources, our food, and cause major disease outbreaks. These activities are bound to result in significant human rights violations under the various charters and treaties. Firstly, the right to health will see a drastic rise of malnutrition in children. There will also be a threat of major increases in droughts and flooding around the world (Oxfam, 2008). Another right that needs to be preserved during this process is the all-important right to life and security. Article 3 of the UDHR asks for the â€Å"right to life, liberty and security of person†. These rights are in serious danger of being breached from the issues of the ecological crisis. Goodhart (2009) maintains that the depletion of environmental resources like clean water and oil has â€Å"been a cause of violent conflict in several areas around the world† and this is of extreme distress because of the occurrence of, say, peak oil. Climate change can greatly affect the security of people around the world. As a result of the rising sea levels, the increased temperature and therefore the damage to land, inhabitants of the Earth will experience more flooding, droughts and fires, heat waves and higher occurrence of storms. All of these can ultimately lead to death and an increase in numbers. Another important right affected by this crisis has been the right to food as stipulated in Article 11(1) of the ICESCR . Current trends are not a good sign for people’s right to food under this treaty. Oxfam (2008) suggests that any further warming of the planet is bound to expose fifty million more people to hunger by the year 2020. Within another 30 years in 2050, that number could vastly increase to 132 million. These are extremely high numbers that would be detrimental to the survival of many regions and populations. The Oxfam report cites the case of Africa, where land for cultivation is being reduced by climate change causing the season for growing crop to decrease thereby producing less crop for food. The International Council on Human Rights Policy (ICHRP) categorically mentions that climate change creates violations of human rights due to the constant harm that we are inflicting on the environment (ICHRP, 2008). The most serious effects of the ecological crisis will usually and unfortunately be experienced by the people whose rights and protections are currently not being respected and so occurrences like climate change, tar sands, and pollution will have a greater impact on the more disregarded populations. This includes the poor and usually indigenous peoples around the world. As Havermann (2009) put it, the indigenous peoples around the world are some of those that are most susceptible to these crises while being the ones who have the smallest responsibility for them. For example, the oil and gas expansion by multinational corporations around the world is having severe effects on climate change and the environment, leading on to issues for human rights particularly with indigenous peoples. As Karliner (1991) noted, oil and its excavation has an overwhelmingly negative effect on the economic stability of these groups. Also a huge concern, as a result, is their health which tends to suffer from these activities. The problems faced by many countries with deforestation have also been exacerbating the situation for the realisation of human rights around the world. Many of the forests are disappearing at an alarming rate. The boomerang effect is thus a reduction in the all-important biodiversity that the forests contain and that is necessary for the continued livelihood and survival of those dependent on it. This includes, according to ICHRP (2008), the over fifty million tribal inhabitants of forests around the globe who are constantly affected with their food safety harshly curtailed. If the present rates at which such deforestation and the previously mentioned rises of climate change, oil spills and pollution continue, it is thought that a majority of the rainforests on the Earth will have vanished even before the 21st century has ended. Concern of the Century? Many environmentalists and human rights defenders have framed the ecological crisis as one with a human rights dimension. This is because most see it now as a serious inhibitor to development, to the daily living of man and to fulfilling the rights that have been laid out in the various international instruments. The ecological crisis has seen a large number of environmental problems over the years and its effects are now being debated fiercely on the world stage. Some world leaders, scientists and the general population are all trying to engage in finding solutions to the problem while others still question and underestimate the gravity of the phenomenon. The issue has become a major concern, not just for the planet physically, but also in a human rights context because the ecological crisis single-handedly affects a range of different human rights as seen above. In many instances, its effects can breach more rights than some of the other current rights violators. In addition, while most abuses of human rights can generally be halted voluntarily, if these environmental problems are allowed to linger untreated then at some point in time the destruction of the environment would have become irreversible. This in turn would result in more human rights violations. As Hawkins (2010) argues, the resources of the planet are limited and so to continue with the existing trend will place humanity in peril. Also, the atmosphere cannot distinguish between the greenhouse gases that affect climate change by the region it comes from (UNDP, 2007). Climate change, for example, is non-discriminatory and unlike other rights violations being perpetrated around the world, it can affect just about anyone. This is why such a huge international human rights advocacy process has now been implemented. In a statement in 2007, UN Secretary General Ban Ki Moon referred to climate change as â€Å"the greatest emerging humanitarian challenge of our time† which is â€Å"menacing the whole human family†. As the UNFCCC acknowledged in the framework, the universal reach of the effects of climate change requires the â€Å"widest possible co-operation from all countries† (UNFCCC, 1992). It is evident that the human rights implications of the ecological crisis is a great concern for many people especially in the recent efforts by NGOs to publicise the matter, while a number of measures have been put in place by international organisations such as the UN to tackle the problems – through summits, conferences and protocols like the Kyoto protocol. In 2008, a resolution was passed by the Organisation of American States (OAS) on human rights and climate change (ICHRP, 2008). The commitments set forth in the 1997 Kyoto protocol are soon to end in 2012. Neglecting to meet these obligations will cause us to reach even closer to further crisis. In December 2011, Canada officially pulled out of its commitments to the protocol (Carrington and Vaughan, 2011). The backlash and criticism from world leaders and actors was astounding and this showed the level that the ecological crisis and its implications for human life have reached in this century. Conclusion Going forward without confronting this global challenge that is the ecological crisis with the seriousness that it deserves will result in countless human rights violations around the globe. The climate change, deforestation, oil spills and rising sea levels will cause a massive increase in the destruction of habitats, reduced water supply, island and coastal regions vanishing, and greater health concerns. These in turn are destabilizing many peoples’ rights to food, health, security, life and livelihood. It is imperative that the principles and norms of human rights are continuously applied to these crises so as to halt the irreparable destruction of the environment and the future of humankind. As noted by the UNDP (2007), the 20th century saw leadership disasters resulting in two world wars in which masses of people suffered. In this the 21st century, the destructive nature of the ecological crisis has become the new and preventable disaster.

Child and Adolescent Psychology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Child and Adolescent Psychology - Essay Example The infancy period is of no exception to this rule. First of all, it is important to dispel any claim that the infancy period or the first year of child development is insignificant and it won’t make any difference at such a young age just because a baby, such as in the case of Tyree, will be sleeping most of the time anyway. In Erikson’s theory of psychosocial analysis, the first stage of development focuses on the experiences of an infant in the culmination of what Erikson would term as Trust versus Mistrust. According to Santrock, this stage is characterized by a sense of trust that requires â€Å"a feeling of physical comfort and a minimal amount of fear and apprehension about the future† and thus â€Å"trust in infancy sets the stage for a lifelong expectation that the world will be a good and pleasant place to live in† (2004). In relation to the physical needs of an infant, it is widely recognized that proximodistal principle growth and development follow from the center of the body outward. â€Å"During infancy and early childhood, the limbs continue to grow faster than the hands and feet† and thus â€Å"children first develop the ability to use their upper arms and legs† (Papalia et al., 2007). With this kept in mind, it is best to choose Child Care A which have a lot of tunnels for crawling and resting. More tunnels mean more opportunities for exercise and as such this environment will be more conducive for Tyree’s gross and fine motor coordination and skills. In relation to the cognitive needs of an infant, the cognitive ability to perceive and handle information is being influenced by the surroundings of an infant and this largely relates to their future intelligence. â€Å"Much information-processing research with infants is based on habituation, a type of learning in which repeated or continuous exposure to a stimulus reduces attention to that stimulus† and â€Å"As infants habituate, they transform the novel into the

Animals are Friends, not Scientific Experiments Research Paper

Animals are Friends, not Scientific Experiments - Research Paper Example This paper seeks to quickly review animals as friends of man, and not scientific experiments. Animal research is a practice that has had an inhumane impact on animals. It is a cruel process which often involves discomfort to the animals, and in some instances, pain and death. Pain is a mental process which often cannot be observed, but it does not mean that it is not happening. Its physical impact can also be significant as observed from humans who manifest responses like screaming, crying, or even jerking away from the object or person causing them pain. If from the above-mentioned indicators we can deduce pain in humans, why is it that the scientists overlook the fact that animals also feel pain? When animals are stepped on or poked, they cry or jerk away. Animal testing involves hurting and painful procedures which include the injection of poisonous chemicals, the cutting of their abdomen, and the stressing of their bones until they break, and similar other procedures. All these p ainful acts are performed without anesthesia being administered. Scientists argue that anesthesia often interferes with the accuracy of their results. For which reason, they have no qualms about subjecting these animals to intolerable pain. Painful experiments on animals can make most people uncomfortable. For many years, much controversy has surrounded the practice of animal testing, and the subject of primates subjected to testing has been one of the core issues of this controversy (Conn, et.al., 2008). On one side, humans relate more to primates, more than any other animals and therefore, their eagerness on the use of such primates for experimentation is strong (Conn, et.al., 2008). The feelings of kinship with primates have often animal rights groups to express their protests against animal cruelty and testing. Those involved in primate testing however argue that these experiments are necessary in order to establish cures for diseases and the fact that primates have more in comm on anatomically to humans, make them the best candidate for experimentation (Guerrini, 2003). There are however inherent issues which are bound with this practice. It is evident that animals experience cruel and inhuman treatments through some of the experiments carried out on them. In some of these experiments, they are often forced to ingest household products and are then monitored to observe the results. Further, in other experiments, animals are often forced to ingest medicines before these medications are put into market. These experiments are carried out in order to ensure that they do not have any life-threatening side effects on human beings. To test corrosive chemicals, chemicals are often applied on the shaved backs of the animals and these chemicals expectedly burn the skins of these animals, often causing them much agony and pain (Larry, 2004 p145). According to the scientists, animals and human beings have a similar biological structure. This is a fragile foundation to base an argument on. Research has expressed that every animal species has a unique biological structure which may look similar to others, but are, in fact, very different. It has also been established that experimental results accrued from one species can have negative results on other species (Langley 2010). It is therefore wrong to conclude that the biological genetics of human beings resemble those of animals; and it is therefore wro

Citizen Kane Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Citizen Kane - Essay Example Kane’s mother is trying to talk and send him to Thatcher so that he can receive a better education and have a bright future. The intense stare as the mother looks Kane straight in the eye trying to explain the situation to him shows how much she cares for her son and cares for him to receive a bright future. Kane’s mother wants him to go so as to receive the American dream (Bordwell &Thompson, 2011). There is much tension in the scene when Kane refuses to go with Thatcher as he is content with the kind of life he is living in his humble background. Thatcher and Kane’s mother talk to him through the window as he is playing in the snow. There is an argument as his mother forces him to go with Thatcher. The conversation ends with banging the window and leaves Kane with no option than to go discover the American dream. The relationship between Kane and his mother is an affectionate relationship as Kane loves his love of peace and serenity and quiet. While reading the â€Å"Declaration of Principles†, Kane is cast in a shadow when he is reading the declaration aloud, but once he completes the reading he goes back to light. The use of lighting in this scene says two things about Kane. One is that Kane is not strong to be able to persist with the principles regardless his idealism being genuine (Carringer, 2004). The second thing is that the shadow also shows how the Inquirer and Kane will become the antithesis to the declaration he just read. Leland recounts Kane’s first marriage and suggests he was in love with the wife that is why he married her. Kane was, however, brutal to his first wife that led to the end of their marriage. The breakfast sequence shows a lot of the things that was going on in their married life. At the beginning of the marriage, they are a happy newlywed couple, and they sit next to each other. They talk with smiles and laughs, and Mrs. Kane is wearing

Republican Party vs Democratic Party Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Republican Party vs Democratic Party - Essay Example The current chairman is Mike Duncan, the senate leader is Mitch McConnell and the house leader is John Boehner. As with all parties, this is divided into different sections to manage different platforms. The Republican National Committee promotes the party's campaign activities. Under this, the Republican National Convention is responsible for raising funds and planning future campaign strategies. Following a more conservative point of view relative to the American-Christian point of view, the party stands for more economic freedom including lower tax rates and limited government intervention. National Defense takes top priority and the Republican Party believes its Americas right to act against any threat they perceive is harmful for the country, like attacking Iraq on a vague hunch and without any potential evidence. The sleek and stealthy deer is making good progress. This party stands as the oldest party in America and up until 2004, it was also the largest political party in America as well. It traces its roots back to Thomas Jefferson who was the co-founder with other important personalities back in 1972 (Democratic Vision, 2008). The present chairman of the party is Howard Dean with Harry Reid as the senate leader and Nancy Pelosi (speaker) and Steny Hoyer (Majority Leader) of the House. Structure The promotion of democratic campaign activities is the responsibility of the Democratic National Committee. It supervises the Democratic National Convention during presidential elections. However, the national convention is the one which has ultimate authority once the party is elected and the national committee is the one in authority when it is not elected. Ideology The party supports social liberalism and progressiveness. This is the reason for its being so popular because it draws loyalty of all types of demographic population in America. Throughout its history, the party has brought relief for the common and relatively struggling man like farmers and laborers. Recently though, the voting majority consists of social liberalists who are in the upper middle class and are well aware of their surroundings. These people prefer a more socially free platform of living their lives as opposed to the Republican Party which takes a much more religious approach. They favor moderate to high spending and a less intrusive enterprise system to work freely. The party strongly holds the opinion of the role of the government to completely eliminate poverty through progressive taxation. Works Cited Robert Allen Rutland. The Republicans: From Lincoln to Bush. University of Missouri Press, 1996 DNC Services Corporation. The Democratic Vision. The Democratic

Financl analysis of dareen company Research Paper

Financl analysis of dareen company - Research Paper Example Comparison using ratios over two financial years of Dareen Merchandizing and with industry would provide considerable insight regarding Dareen Merchandizing business performance. 1- PROFIT MARGIN FORMULA = NET INCOME Â   Â   SALES Â   (McLaney, 2009) A- RATIO: Ratio DM 2011 Industry 2011 DM 2010 Industry 2010 PROFIT MARGIN =219,030/815000 26.87% 26.00% =136,990/645,000 21.24% 22.00% B- COMMENT ON COMPANY PERFORMANCE AND INDUSTRY TREND 2011- PM-Favorable over industry 2010- PM- Favorable over industry Profit margin in the year 2011 has increased as compared to year 2010. Main reason driving this increase appears to increase in prices as well as sales of the product. Income statement shows sales increased from AED 645,000 in year 2010 to AED 815,000 in year 2011. Increase in price is also clued from comparatively minimal increase in cost goods sold than increase in sales. Increase in sales can be attributed to heavy advertising expenditure incurred from AED 2200 in year 2010 to AED 25000 in 2011. ... C- RECOMMENDATION Increase in sales without similar increase in cost refers that firm has strong control over cost components. However, this increase in sales has a push from high advertising expenditure and hence, firm has room for improvement in this respect. Control over advertising expenses has additional capacity to improve this profitability ratio. Moreover, control over utilities expenses that have increased almost near to double, can also improve net income which will ultimately improve DM’s profitability and will take it ahead of industry profitability margin. Control over these would give some room to decrease price (for instance, seasonal discounts etc) which will further increase sales and would promote profitability positively. 2- INVENTORY TURNOVER FORMULA = SALES Â   Â   INVENTORY Â   (McLaney, 2009) A- RATIO: Ratio DM 2011 Industry 2011 DM 2010 Industry 2010 INVENTORY TURNOVER 815,000/170,700 10.00X 645,000/32,470 9.00X 4.77X 19.86X B- COMMENT ON COMPANY PER FORMANCE AND INDUSTRY TREND 2011- IO- Unfavorable over industry 2010- IO- Favorable over industry Inventory turnover ratio of DM doesn’t reflect some healthy picture. In the year 2010 DM had a very minimal inventory in reference to the amount of sales. In the following year of 2011, the amount of retained inventory increased to large extent. It reflects that in both years company had inefficient inventory management. In the former year it must be constantly involved in the buying inventory every few day i.e. every 18 day (360/19.86) which resulted extra exercise, cost and time which could have been invested in other productive exercise. In the year 2011, firm purchased sizeable inventory each time in

Investigation report on World Trade Organization Essay

Investigation report on World Trade Organization - Essay Example The goal is to help producers of goods and services, exporters, and importers conduct their business," (p.1). "Under the WTO's system of corporate-managed trade, economic efficiency, reflected in short-run corporate profits, dominates other values. Decisions affecting the economy are to be confined to the private sector, while social and environmental costs are borne by the public," Adding that, "In November 1999, the World Trade Organization's (WTO) Third Ministerial Meeting in Seattle collapsed in spectacular fashion, in the face of unprecedented protest from people and governments around the world. The WTO and GATT Uruguay Round Agreements have functioned principally to pry open markets for the benefit of transnational corporations at the expense of national and local economies; workers, farmers, indigenous peoples, women and other social groups; health and safety; the environment; and animal welfare. In addition, the WTO system, rules and procedures are undemocratic, un-transparent and non-accountable and have operated to marginalize the majority of the world's people," (Public Citizen, 2008 p.1). The WTO seeks to promote its services to the world trading community as a way to facilitate trading throughout the modern world.

The Most Damnable Invention Essay Example for Free

The Most Damnable Invention Essay Dynamite is a high explosive that derives its power from a chemical called nitroglycerin and which used diatomaceous earth as its absorbent. Dynamite was invented by Swedish chemist and engineer Alfred Nobel in 1866 and was then patented in 1867. Dynamite has a wide range of uses; from building demolitions to warfare and death. It was that last characteristic of dynamite that worried Nobel the most. Initially, Nobel thought that the invention of dynamite would end the possibility of future wars and possible foes would see the destructive force of dynamite and it would serve as enough of a deterrent to the point that wars would be outlawed in favor of common sense. This would not be the reality of the invention as warring countries sought new and more effective ways in which to vanquish their enemies to such a degree that the destructive forces of dynamite would be forever linked to Alfred Nobel. Nobel sought to change his epitaph from the minister of death as one French newspaper put it when confusing the death of his brother with his own. Nobel formed the Nobel Peace Prize in order to encourage peaceful and useful contributions to the human race in a personal attempt to be able to say that he too, was a force for good, despite the misuse by society, of his invention. But to say that the invention and use of dynamite has affected history, there is no doubt. In contemporary society however dynamite is used in a much more productive and peaceful way. The inventor of dynamite, Alfred Nobel, was born on October 21, 1833 in Stockholm Sweden. Nobel gained his fortune, not only in the invention of dynamite but also through his income as a chemist, engineer as well as the owner of a major manufacturing plant. Nobel, devoted himself to the study of explosives and especially the sale and manufacturing of nitroglycerine which had incidentally, only been discovered a few years earlier in 1847 by Asanio Sobrero, a fellow attending student at the University of Torino. Nobel would continue to be fascinated by explosions and continued to learn everything that he could about the science that surrounded it. In 1865, Nobel built the Alfred Nobel Co. Factory near Hamburg, Germany. However, it was in this factory where dynamite claimed its first casualty. This fascination would lead to an explosion that would kill Nobel’s own brother Emil in 1864. But only two short years later, Nobel was credited with the invention of dynamite and was given a patent for it in 1867. Nobel would establish factories in the United States, France and Germany as well as continue to spread his influence into his home country of Sweden. But it would be his invention of dynamite that he would be remembered for, at least while he was alive, as a force of death and destruction, an impediment to a peaceful world. And it was an association that he did not find entirely flattering. But for the time being, Nobel and the rest of the world, was forced to confront the new and threatening power of destruction that dynamite had while in the possession of the wrong people. Nobel said of his invention: â€Å"My factories may make an end to war sooner than you congresses. The day when two armies corps can annihilate each other in one second, all civilized nations, it is to be hoped, will recoil from war and discharge their troops. † If only that prediction came to fruition, there would have been a lot less victims of man’s hate and desire for destruction which, for a time, was the primary use of dynamite. The use of dynamite, upon its inception, had a wide variety of uses as more and more people looked for ways in which it could benefit themselves. After the invention of dynamite in 1867, dynamite, or as it was originally marketed as : Nobel’s Blasting Powder, rapidly gained popularity. It was marketed as a safe alternative to the explosiveness of gun powder while still being just as lethal if not more. Very quickly, Nobel could see the destructive force of his invention and kept a tight lid on his invention. However, United States business men, who were able to alter the chemical formula just enough so that they could get around the restrictions that Nobel’s patent once provided. In America, the use of dynamite would be used in order top promote sinister motives that left the entire country suspicious of the invention and which helped to increase the backlash of public opinion towards Alfred Nobel. Dynamite consists of 75% nitroglycerin, 24% diatomaceous earth and a small mixture of sodium carbonate. These mixtures are formed into sticks and wrapped into paper. The fact that dynamite is by itself a very explosive substance as well as the fact that its chemical make up can be broken down very easily over time which compromises the stability of its form. Over time, the dynamite will back into nitroglycerine which will then pool at the bottom of a storage area, thus creating a potentially damaging situation. The transportation of dynamite is very dangerous and can cause intentional or unintentional harm to a large number of victims in a wide area of space surrounding the explosion of the dynamite. In American History, there are two famous events where the use of dynamite made it possible for anarchists to promote their twisted ideology. The first was the 1888 Haymarket Square in Chicago Illinois. During the 1870’s and 1880’s. Chicago was a leading center for union activism as workers tried to organize and pool their collected influence. In 1886, labor unions were calling for a one day strike and a demonstration in Chicago. Their demands were for better working conditions and an eight hour work day. On May 1st, at the McCormick Center, two shootings and one death occurred during a riot. Three days later, a mass demonstration was organized on Haymarket Square. The mayor of Chicago sent an extra number of police which used excessive force and another riot broke out. As a result, an explosion, packed with dynamite was thrown from somewhere in the crowd. The name of the offender was not known. What was known was the fact that seven police officers died and four offenders, self proclaimed anarchists, were tried and two were hung. The bigger picture that the use of dynamite produced a wider influence than first thought. The use of dynamite helped to bring the entire establishment against the ideas of the Progressives with regard to their desire to improve their working conditions. Deep rooted fears that the country had regarding sinister elements were now proved to be correct in the minds of many Americans. However, the Haymarket Square Riot did help to organize the call among labor leaders to continue to fight the employers. Even though many of the Progressive leaders did not condone the use of violence, and even though it was not known for sure who was responsible for the throwing of the dynamite bomb, it was assumed that it was almost certainly, a member of the pro labor union forces. â€Å"However, what was seen as excessive force by the police, seemed to almost condone the actions in the minds of the most radical labor leaders. † As a result, the labor movement in Chicago and in New York specifically, gained momentum and within the next few decades, the Progressive Movement would see a surge in their influence, not only on the streets and in the factories, but also in Congress as well. This was not entirely a result of the Haymarket Square but in Chicago, in 1894, the second largest labor strike occurred in the 19th century at the Pullman Car Company on the south side of Chicago. No dynamite was used in this demonstration but many of the workers used for their motivation, the events at Haymarket Square. The second is the 1920 bombing of the Wall Street Building in downtown Manhattan. There was a feeling of suspicion among the country at that time that was prompted by a unmistakable xenophobia. Socialists groups had gained in converts and influence yet there has been no show of force until one day, in a New York City Post office, sixteen packages, addressed to prominent Senators and Congressmen and which contained: â€Å" enough dynamite to blow a man’s head off† were discovered and which confirmed deeply suspicions feelings about the anarchists within the city and their desire for revolution, the same that had occurred in Russia only three years earlier. Neither events had the desired result of anarchy that the perpetrators had hoped for. Nevertheless, it would not be long until another attempt was made to create panic to the financial and districts of America On a warm May late morning in 1920, a horse drawn wagon pulled up to the corner of Wall Street. It was a few minutes before lunch and people were getting ready to head out onto the May afternoon to eat their lunch. A large explosion occurred and the wagon was full of dynamite as well as thousands of sash weights that dug into the stone of the Wall Street buildings; the financial capital of the country. Forty people were killed and the horse had become completely disintegrated. The stock market did not close that day however and the Dow continued to rise as one of the most exciting decades the stock market had ever seen to date was officially under way. But the destructive potential of dynamite has not been restricted only to the United States and only in the distant past. In Ireland, with bombings occurring almost weekly in the 1970’s and 1980’s the deathly potential of dynamite came to the front door of the United Kingdom. There has been civil unrest in Ireland for hundreds of years as Ireland fought to gain their independence from England. When Ireland gained her independence in 1921, twenty six out of a total of thirty two counties were made their own country, independent from England. The Protestant minority, which had centralized herself in the six most Northern counties of Ireland and not wanting to lose the little influence that they had by being outnumbered and overpowered by the Catholic majority, voted to keep their allegiance to England. And a Northern Ireland, with their own currency and independent from the lower twenty six counties, remained separate. This has been fought over since 1921 but came to a head in the 1970’s and 1980’s as increased pressure to unite Ireland was coming from the political wing of Ireland Sinn Fein and their leader Gerry Adams and Martin McGinness. In the same way that Middle Eastern terrorists use violent means in order to further their cause, Sinn Fein did the same as well. It is estimated that since the Bloody Sunday Massacre on January 30, 1972 until present day, more than three thousand people, with the vast majority being innocent civilians, have been killed through bombings by the IRA and Sinn Fein and in response by the Ulster Unionists who are associated to Northern Ireland and the continuation of a separate Ireland. These terrorists would use as their weapon of choice for these bombings, dynamite. With much of it being illegally shipped by Omar Kadafe, who was sympathetic about Ireland’s plight of uniting their country and approved of its measures to achieve its goal, sent thousands of pounds of nitroglycerine as well as other materials that are used to make dynamite. Hundreds of sticks of dynamite along with a large arsenal of guns and other forms of weaponry accompanied each shipment. The targets for these bombings would usually be social settings: restaurants and pubs where it was assured that dozens of unsuspecting patrons would meet their deaths. However, the result of hundreds of these bombings throughout Ireland has actually resulted in the opposite desired effect. The IRA and Sinn Fein are considered to be on the fringe of society and the rightness of their cause, as seen through the hunger strike of Bobby Sands, an MP, has been lost. And even though Britain’s influence within Northern Ireland has decreased in the past years and peace agreement after peace agreement has been ignored by both sides, it becomes increasingly unlikely that there will ever be a united Ireland in the immediate or distant future. This is because it is now seen that recons illation by either side will, in effect, make the deaths of the thousands of victims on both sides, now be considered null and void. In this effect, the use of dynamite greatly decreased the likelihood that a true and lasting peace would ever come to Ireland. If dynamite has never been invented, there still would have been troubles in Ireland among the Catholics and Protestants and between Unionists and the IRA but the number of deaths, and therefore, the number of hurdles that would need to be overcome in order to obtain a lasting peace, would have been a mere shadow of the reality that is now facing Ireland’s peace process today. In this respect, every lover of peace and brotherhood, not only in Ireland but throughout the world, has come to regret the day that dynamite had been invented. It served as an unmistakable impediment for that portion of the world. However, there have been found some positive uses of dynamite. In the United States today, the uses of dynamite are as such: â€Å"Coal mining 67%, non metal mining 14% metal mining, 10% construction 7% and miscellaneous 3%. † At the end of the 19th century and into the 20th, coal was the country’s primary source for fuel. In order to get the coal out of the earth, dynamite blasting was required. As a result, more dynamite meant easier travel by way of ship and train which used as their chief form of fuel: coal. The shipping industry as well as the railroad which served as the number one form of cross country transportation and was second in use only to the mass transit system of the major cities, used coal as their use of fuel. Without dynamite, coal still could and was retrieved from the ground but at a snail’s pace compared to the rate that it extracted from the earth today. This has wide ranging implications and is one use of dynamite which was to the benefit of the masses. In this way, the correct and responsible use of dynamite was used to better the lives of millions of people over the decades. The importance of dynamite on the world stage has diminished from its zenith in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Dynamite has now been replaced by safer alternatives but is still used in coal mining. And with America’s push away from Middle eastern independence through their oil supply, many people are pointing to the abundance of American coal. In that respect, the importance of dynamite on the world stage might return. For the most part, contemporary societies have come to share the vision that Alfred Nobel had for his invention. However, as long as people seek to further their ideas in violent measures, dynamite still serves an attractive tool in that motive. Nuclear Weapons, bigger guns and other forms of chemical warfare have replaced the use dynamite in war. Nobel was too unrealistic about the depravity of man to think that dynamite’s destructive potential would be abandoned in favor of more peaceful measures. But with every invention that increases an army’s ability to kill, it is said that this will now outlaw war. But that has yet to happen. However, since dynamite is no longer seen as the most effective tool in warfare, its uses can now be concentrated more on its useful abilities and continue to aid in the welfare of man; Nobel’s original intent. WORKS CITED Birney, E. The Effectiveness of Dynamite. www. nchi. mlm. nih. gov. Sanger Centre Cambridge February 21, 2006 Burns, Ric The History of New York. New York: PBS Video. 1999 Bown, Stephen, The Most Damnable Invention. New York: St. Martin’s Press. 2005 Commanger, Henry Steele. Documents of American History. New York: Century Publishers. 1947 Perry, John. Endgame in Ireland. New York: PBS Video. 2001 Elistone, Mary. The Haymarket Square Riot. Chicago: University of Chicago Law Review. 1993 Marcazee, Joseph. The Use of Dynamite in History. New York: The American Journal of American History. 1999. nobelprize. org/Alfred_nobel